What follows is a list of the more significant changes that you will encounter in the new APA Manual. Please visit the APA website, click on APA Style, and watch a short video produced by APA on the differences between the two editions. This sheet is not intended to replace familiarity with the actual Manual.
Mechanics/Structure
Centered, Bold, Upper and Lower Case Headings
Left justified, Bold, Upper and Lower Case Heading
Indented, bold, lower case, paragraph heading ending with a period.
Indented, bold, italics, lower case paragraph heading ending with a period.
Indented, italics, lower case paragraph heading ending with a period.
(Refer to Table 3.1, p. 62)
Citations
APA Style: What’s New in the Sixth Edition? Citations and References 6th edition The 2001 manual’s outdated electronic reference format was replaced in a 2007 pdf, with DOI number as first choice, journal home page as second choice, and database name as third choice In electronic references, DOI is first choice, journal home page as second choice, and database home page as third choice Spacing for reference list, table/figure captions, and block quotes: Single or double spacing acceptable; Walden used single spacing Double-spacing only in all text When presenting more than six authors in a reference entry, use et al. after first six authors If seven authors or fewer, list them all. For more than seven authors, use ellipsis points after first six authors, then list the last author Use para. or ¶ to cite a paragraph number Use para. when citing a paragraph number Issue number included only when journal is paginated by issue; 2007 updates changed to always using issue Back to 5th edition rules: only include issue when journal is paginated by issue Guidelines for use of year in subsequent citations of the same source within a paragraph somewhat unclear. APA editors confirmed that the author should never appear in parentheses without the year; year must appear in the first reference but then can be omitted in subsequent mentions outside the parenthetical Year should always appear inside the parenthetical and the first time the author is used outside the parenthetical in a given paragraph, even if it has already been mentioned inside parentheses. The year may be omitted when the author appears later in that paragraph only if the source can't be confused with another No special exceptions for different authors with the same last name and first initial In reference list: Thomas, B. [Brian]. (1988); Thomas, B. [Bruce]. (1999). Full first name will appear in the citation: (Brian Thomas, 1988) No special exceptions for hyphenated first names Sartre, J.-P. (1934). No special exceptions for authors listed as "with" author Schneekloth, M. (with Lamberton, G.) (2003)…. in reference list. In text citations, only the primary author (here, Schneekloth) appears
The APA Manual As a Sullivan University Learner, writers should actually own a copy of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed.). The APA Publication Manual is truly critical to all Sullivan University Learners. Owning a copy will save valuable study time. While there are many good college writing handbooks that offer useful APA information and examples, nothing is more comprehensive than the official Publication Manual, so it is the best to have on hand to learn all aspects of APA style and to save valuable study time. Moreover, because proper APA format is required for many Sullivan University courses and is essential to all Sullivan University coursework, writers will need to develop a comprehensive understanding of APA that can be applied to all writing at Sullivan University. Save time and energy by getting a copy today. The APA Publication Manual will be used frequently throughout each writer’s academic career. Under Construction Font Styles and Sizes for Figures and Tables Table Notes Lists (Seriation) Level of Headings Tables and Figures from Another Source If the table or figure in need of citation is provided in a published work, writers will need to obtain permission from the copyright holder to reproduce or adapt it. Please note that in academic publications, it is often the publisher, not the author, who holds the copyright to the contents of the publication. Quotations and Citations Citing sources is important to academic writing. Any source appearing in the text, even if paraphrased, needs to be cited on the References page. The audience should be able to identify and easily retrieve each source referenced. This practice confirms the writer’s credibility as a researcher, and it allows readers to locate the writer’s sources for their own use, evaluation, and analysis. Reference Citations in Text In academic writing, information from an outside source must be cited. APA citation style uses the author and the date of the source in the text, which then refers readers to a reference list at the end of the paper for the complete source information. There are several methods to cite an outside source in text that differ based on several factors, including the number of authors cited and subsequent citations within a paragraph. Explanations are also given regarding the use of the ampersand (&), authors who share the same last name, works with no author, and personal communications. Secondary Sources If Publication A describes another study (Publication B) and the writer uses some information about Publication B without reading Publication B, the writer must cite the information as a work discussed in a secondary source. In the APA Publication Manual, see .This page provides both examples needed: the in-text citation and the reference list entry. Note Publication B is not listed in the reference list. Anonymous Author Writers will sometimes encounter sources for which no author can be determined. Documents with no author are particularly common with Internet sources. Per the APA Publication Manual, “writers place the title in the author position and alphabetize by the first significant word in the title when works have no author.” Anonymous is used very infrequently in the place of an author’s name in APA style, and writers will most likely never encounter this situation. Electronic Media Aggregated Databases Since the purpose of APA’s citation style is to allow researchers to easily find the reference or source, reference citations must cite the actual name of the aggregated database or the Web site from which they were retrieved. Citing the actual name of the aggregated database from which a reference was retrieved allows the audience and future researchers to easily find the reference or source cited in the paper. Note that some databases provide only the first page number of an article rather than the page range required in the APA Publication Manual. To get the range of pages, writers can open the PDF of the article and look at the page numbers. Writers should not renumber the pages of an article beginning with 1 if the page numbers are not on the copy obtained. Sample APA Papers APA Sample Papers can be reviewed in the APA Publication Manual
The proper use of abbreviations can help clarify text, while the excessive use of abbreviations can cause confusion. The APA Publication Manual provides some suggestions in the effective use of abbreviations.
The general rule of using abbreviations is as follows: Any expression that will be abbreviated should be written out in full the first time it is used followed by the abbreviation in parentheses and abbreviated thereafter. “Do not switch between the abbreviated and written-out forms of a term” (APA p. 104). An exception to this rule is the abbreviated term should be written out in full when it begins a sentence. The following text is an example of using an expression and its abbreviation in varying circumstances:
Retirement benefits have increased for 86% of chief executive officers (CEOs)
since 1995. Lewis (2002) noted placing limits on CEO retirement benefits is
not discussed “with new chief executive officers out of respect for the position
and to prevent the potential loss in shareholder value” (p. 3). An organization
may feel uncomfortable decreasing a new CEO’s retirement benefits, believing
such a discussion could start the relationship in a negative manner (Lewis).
Chief executive officers’ benefits thus continue to increase and often negatively
affect stock prices.
(Note the term in the quotation in the preceding example was not abbreviated.)
Writers of multi-chapter documents such as dissertations should remember that abbreviations should not be defined more than once in the entire document. A new chapter does not necessitate an abbreviation to be redefined.
Use an abbreviation under the following circumstances:
1. The abbreviation is conventional and familiar to the reader.
2. The abbreviation saves space.
3. The abbreviation prevents repetition.
Do not overuse abbreviations. Just because a term can be abbreviated does not mean the term should be abbreviated. Some general guidelines to prevent the overuse of abbreviations are as follows:
1. Consider whether the space saved by an abbreviation justifies the time needed to understand the meaning (APA, p. 103).
2. Avoid abbreviations that may offend, such as labeling people with specific learning disabilities LDs (APA, p. 64).
3. Avoid abbreviations that are difficult to decipher.
Avoid redundancy in an abbreviation. For example, if the No Child Left Behind Act is abbreviated NCLB, the text should not describe the NCLB Act, which would be read the No Child Left Behind Act Act.
Abbreviations should not be used in the title of a study or paper (APA, p. 11).
Most abbreviations can be pluralized by adding the letter s (not italicized and without an apostrophe): ps, Ms, and CEOs (APA, p. 110).
The following abbreviations should be used only in parentheses: cf., e.g., etc., i.e., viz., vs. (APA, p. 106).
Any abbreviations used in a table or a figure must be defined in the figure caption or table note (APA, pp. 104-105).
Abbreviations that appear in a table can be parenthetically explained in the table title (APA, p. 156).
Abbreviations should be used at least three times after they have been introduced (APA, p. 103).
The APA Publication Manual discusses headings and provides some very helpful examples (see pp. 111-115). However, because the levels are not intuitive, it will take practice to become familiar with them. Note that there must be at least two headings at the same level within a section. The following example describes all levels of headings, their formatting styles, and when they should be used.
EXAMPLE OF A LEVEL 5 HEADING
If and only if a document contains five levels of headings, the highest level is a Level 5 heading, which is centered and uppercase. When another heading is needed, a Level 1 heading is inserted.
Example of a Level 1 Heading
Level 1 headings are centered and use uppercase and lowercase type. If a document does not contain five levels of headings, Level 1 is the highest level heading used. Level 2 is the next level.
Example of a Level 2 Heading
Level 2 headings are similar to Level 1, but are italicized. The next level heading is Level 3.
Example of a Level 3 Heading
Level 3 is flush left, with no indent from the left margin. The lowest level of heading is Level 4.
Example of a Level 4 heading. Level 4 is italicized, indented .5 inch similar to a standard paragraph, and followed by a period. Only the first letter of the first word and any words that should be capitalized according to APA style are capitalized in Level 4 headings. In this instance, the word level is capitalized following the APA rule for nouns followed by numerals (pp. 97-98).
The APA Publication Manual provides examples of which heading levels are needed based on how many levels are in a document (pp. 114-115). The following examples are a condensed version.
For a paper that has only one level of heading, use Level 1.
When using two heading levels use Levels 1 and 3. | When using three heading levels, use Levels 1, 3, and 4. | When using four heading levels, use Levels 1, 2, 3, and 4. | |||||||
Level 1 | Level 1 | Level 1 Level 2 | |||||||
Level 3 | Level 3 | Level 3 | |||||||
| Level 4. | Level 4. | ||||||||
Writers frequently find it more effective to quote another author’s work than to paraphrase. It is crucial to quote and cite sources accurately in academic writing. The APA Publication Manual discusses quotations and citations of sources in Sections 3.34-3.41 (pp.117-122).
Quotations that are fewer than 40 words are enclosed in double quotation marks and incorporated in the text. Every quotation must be preceded or followed by an accurate citation of the source, including the page number or paragraph number (APA, p. 120), in the same sentence.
conduct a quantitative study” (p. 15).
who who wish to conduct a quantitative study.”
“Statistical analysis assists researchers who wish to conduct a quantitative
study” (Faherty, 2004, p. 15).
Rudestam and
relationship between the proposed study and previous work conducted on
the topic” (p. 56).
Quotations of 40 words or more must be set as a block quotation. Block quotations should be double-spaced and indented ½ inch from the left margin. Block quotations do not have quotation marks at the beginning and the end.
Institutions must work harder to recruit more minority faculty. The strength of numbers can provide a critical mass for support and upward mobility. Increasing the number of minority faculty can additionally provide role models for minority students and candidates for leadership positions. (p. 97)
The citation for a block quotation follows the punctuation at the end of the quotation.
With only a few exceptions, quotations must match the original source, including spelling and punctuation. The exceptions are as follows (APA, p.119):
1. The first letter of a quotation may be changed to an uppercase or lowercase letter without indicating such a change was made.
2. Punctuation at the end of the quotation may be changed.
3. Single and double quotations marks can be changed to match syntax.
If an error within a quotation would lead the reader to be confused, insert [sic] immediately following the error in the quotation. British spelling does not necessitate the use of [sic] (APA, p. 118).
If material is to be omitted from a within a sentence, use three spaced ellipses (. . .). Four ellipses should be used to indicate text omitted between sentences. No ellipses are necessary at the beginning or end of a quotation unless they are needed to prevent misinterpretation (APA, p. 119). (Note this is rare.)
Any text added within a quotation should be enclosed with square brackets (APA, p. 120).
Single quotation marks should be used around text from a quotation that was enclosed in double quotation marks in the source (APA, p. 119).
Periods and commas precede quotation marks, while colons and semicolons follow quotation marks.
The difficulty with formatting numbers correctly in APA Style is that there are many exceptions to the rules. For example, most writers are familiar with APA Style’s general rule that requires numbers less than 10 to be expressed in words (i.e., one, two) and numbers 10 and above to be written in numerical form (i.e., 10, 62, 394).
Sections 3.42, 3.43, 3.44, and 3.45 (pp. 122-128) provide many examples of when numbers should be expressed in figures and when numbers should be expressed in words. Some frequently used exceptions are listed in the following table.
Exception | Example | APA page number |
Numbers below 10 that are grouped with numbers greater than 10 in the same paragraph. | The participants were asked to answer 35 questions. However, some of the participants answered only the 6 questions on the first page of the questionnaire. | 123 |
Number of participants | The study included 4 male participants and 7 female participants. | 124 |
Scores and points on a scale | Items will be rated from 1 to 5. Items were rated on a 5-point scale. | 124 |
Numbers that represent dates or ages | 6 years, 7-year-olds, 4th week | 124, 128 |
Numbers that denote a specific place in a numbered series | Theme 1, Week 9 | 125 |
Numbers that represent parts of a document | chapter 3 | 125 |
All numbers in the abstract. | 125 | |
Numbers that begin sentences | Six hundred ninety-two surveys were returned and 613 were valid. | 126 |
Zero and one when words are easier to comprehend than numbers | one-page analysis | 126 |
Universally accepted usage | Fourteenth Amendment | 127 |
Large numbers | 6 million | 127 |
Back to back modifiers | The first 9 respondents | 127 |
Tables are important tools that allow information to be presented in a format that is easy to read and to understand. Microsoft Word’s Table feature allows Learners to create tables that meet APA guidelines.
Tables should complement a textural description and not duplicate it. Therefore, data should not be provided in the text and also presented in a table. Tables should have at least two columns and two rows.
The APA Publication Manual (5th ed.) discusses the size of tables and font in Section 3.72 (p. 174): “When typing tables, it is acceptable to turn them sideways (landscape orientation for setting up a laser printer) on the page or run them over several pages, but do not . . . reduce the type size.”
Although there is no direct specification for font size of table notes in the APA manual, every table note provided in this section’s examples (pp. 150-152, 162-169, 172) is in a noticeably smaller font than the font used for the table’s contents. It is recommended that writers print out a table to ensure the notes in the smaller font can be easily read.
APA does not allow the use of vertical lines in tables. Moreover, many tables only need three horizontal lines: one at the top of the table, one under the column heads, and one at the bottom of the table.
Incorrect with vertical lines
Gender | n | % |
Males | 55 | 83.3 |
Females | 11 | 16.7 |
Correct with horizontal lines
Gender | n | % |
Males | 55 | 83.3 |
Females | 11 | 16.7 |
The following is an example of a table with additional horizontal lines:
Group A | Group B | |||
Gender | n | % | n | % |
Males | 55 | 83.3 | 13 | 59.0 |
Females | 11 | 16.7 | 9 | 41.0 |
When formatting table numbers and titles for the List of Tables, using a soft return (i.e., Ctrl + Enter) will allow the two lines to appear correctly in the List of Tables. So, a table number and title in the text that look like the example on the left will look like the example on the right when the Microsoft Word List of Tables generator is used.
Table 18 Table 1 Demographics of Participants
Demographics of Participants
If tables from another source are being used, see Section 3.73 (pp.174-175) in the Publication Manual. This section also provides text citations for material reprinted from a book and a journal article. The critical issue here is that the writer is responsibly identifying the source of the figure or table being presented and is not presenting someone else’s work without an easy way for the audience to find the credit and retrieval information.
If the table or figure the writer wants to cite is provided in a published work, the writer will need to obtain permission from the copyright holder to reproduce or adapt the table or figure. In academic publications, it is often the publisher, not the author, who holds the copyright to the contents of the publication.
In accord with APA Style, writers must cite their own (previous) course work in the current text. If the work has been published, then the writer would follow the APA format defined in Section 3.34, Quotation of Sources (pp. 117-122), in the APA Publication Manual. If the writer's work is unpublished (e.g., a paper submitted for a previous Sullivan University course assignment), see Section 4.16, Unpublished Work and Publications of Limited Circulation (pp. 263-264), especially Examples 58 and 59.
In academic writing, when information is provided in a paper by an outside source, the source must be cited. In APA Style, when summarizing or paraphrasing, the citation style uses the author and the date of the source in the text, which then refers readers to a reference list at the end of the paper for the complete source information. There are several methods to cite an outside source in text:
1. Noguera (2003) noted zero-tolerance policies have changed school dynamics. (APA, p. 207)
2. Zero-tolerance policies have changed school dynamics (Noguera, 2003). (APA, p. 207)
3. In 2003, Noguera noted zero-tolerance policies changed school dynamics. (APA, p. 208)
If a work has two or more authors, the ampersand (&) is used when the authors and dates are cited parenthetically (McMillan & Schumacher, 1997), but the ampersand is not used in text (APA, p. 209). For example, McMillan and Schumacher (1997) suggested several strategies to enhance validity.
After the name and date have been mentioned in a paragraph, subsequent citations within that paragraph do not need to include the year if the publication cannot be confused with any other study in the document (p. 208). For example, if the reference list contains the following citations, the year should be included each time a reference is cited in the text:
Fullan, M. (2000). The return of large-scale reform. Journal of Educational Change, 1,
20-25.
Fullan, M. (2001). Leading in a culture of change.
When a work has two authors, both authors should be listed each time the work is cited in text (p. 208). When a work has three, four, or five references, all authors should be listed the first time the work is cited and subsequent citations should use the first author’s name followed by et al. (et al. is not in italics and is followed by a period).
First time:
Perreault, 2004)
Second time: Thornton et al. (2004) or (Thornton et al., 2004)
When a work has six or more authors, the first author’s name is followed by et al. on every occurrence, including the first (APA, p. 209).
When two works are written by authors who share the same last name, the initials should be used each time the works are cited (APA, p. 211).
Mitchell, J. R., Friga, P. N., & Mitchell, R. K. (2005). Untangling the intuition mess:
Intuition as a construct in entrepreneurship research. Entrepreneurship
Theory and Practice, 29, 653.
Mitchell, R. K., Busenitz, L., Lant, T., McDougall, P. P., Morse, E. A., & Smith,
J. B. (2002). Towards a theory of entrepreneurial cognition. Entrepreneurship
Theory and Practice, 27 (2), 93. Retrieved September 22, 2005, from
EBSCOhost database.
When two or more works are cited in the same parentheses, the works should be cited alphabetically (APA, p. 212): (Aldrich & Waldinger, 1990; Cope, 1980; Velez, 1982). If two or more works by the same author are cited in the same parentheses, cite them in order by year of publication and do not repeat the name: (Fullan, 2000, 2001).
To cite a specific part of a work, add the page, paragraph, chapter, and so forth (APA, p. 213): (McMillan & Schumacher, 1997, p. 36). Paragraph numbers are used when electronic documents do not contain page numbers (APA, p. 214): (Manning, 2002, para. 2) or (Manning, 2002, ¶ 2).
An academic paper is always well documented, and the importance of an accurate reference list cannot be overemphasized. In APA style, the reference list contains only those references cited in the document; likewise, any reference cited in the document must be provided in the reference list. Writers must maintain an accurate and updated reference list while writing.
Although the APA Publication Manual provides more than 50 pages of samples and explanations that will assist writers in compiling reference lists, the following examples are some of the most common types of references. For information on proper and improper formatting of a reference using a hanging indent, see
Journal article (p. 240)
Adler, N. (2000). An international perspective on the barriers to the advancement of
women managers. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 42, 289-300.
Newspaper article (p. 243)
Dunham, K. J. (2000, July 18). Getting ahead: Judith A. Spreiser. Wall Street Journal,
p. B14.
Book (p. 248)
Becker, G. S. (1993). Human capital: A theoretical and empirical analysis and special
reference to education.
Book chapter (p. 252)
Ashkanasy, N. M., Broadoot, L. E., & Falkus, S. (2000). Questionnaire measures of
organizational culture. In N. N. Ashkanasy, C. Wilderom, & M. F. Peterson
(Eds.), The handbook of organisational culture and climate (pp. 131-146).
Dissertation (p. 260)
Wilfley, D. E. (1989). Interpersonal analyses of bulimia: Normal-weight and obese.
Unpublished doctoral dissertation,
Dissertation with a UMI number (p. 261)
Bower, D. L. (1993). Employee assistant programs supervisory referrals: Characteristics
of referring and nonreferring supervisors. Dissertation Abstracts International,
54 (01), 534B (UMI No. 9315947)
Television broadcast (p. 267)
Crystal, L. (Executive Producer). (1993, October 11). The MacNeil/Lehrer news hour
[Television broadcast].
Service.
Web site document (p. 274)
Brunner, P. W., & Costello, M. L. (2003). When the wrong woman wins: Building bullies
and perpetuating patriarchs. Retrieved April 15, 2005, from
http://www.advancingwomen.com/awl/spring2003/ BRUNNE~1.HTML
Document or page from a Web site with no author or date (p. 274)
Cost sharing partnership opportunities. (n.d.). Retrieved March 13, 2007, from
http://www.faa.gov/ education_research/research/modernization_highlights/
costsharing_opportunities/
Article retrieved from an aggregated database (p. 279)
Banerji, P., & Krishnan, V. R. (2000). Ethical preferences of transformational leaders:
An empirical investigation. Leadership & Organization Development Journal,
21, 405-410. Retrieved August 6, 2004, from ProQuest Database.
Becker, G. S. (1993). Human capital: A theoretical and empirical analysis and special
reference to education.
Wilfley, D. E. (1989). Interpersonal analyses of bulimia: Normal-weight and obese.
Unpublished doctoral dissertation,
Note the formatting for the hanging indent on the following reference, which is correctly styled with the formatting symbols showing:
Grant,•J.•M.• (2004,•November).•Preparing•for•battle:•Healthy•leadership•during
organizational•crisis.•Organizational•Dynamics,•33,•409-425.
Formatting for the hanging indent should not include hitting Enter at the end of the first line or hitting tab. Use the ruler at the top of the page. The following examples are incorrect because changing the reference in any way would result in formatting problems.
Grant,•J.•M.• (2004,•November).•Preparing•for•battle:•Healthy•leadership•during
--> organizational•crisis.•Organizational•Dynamics,•33,•409-425.
Grant,•J.•M.• (2004,•November).•Preparing•for•battle:•Healthy•leadership•during•¶
organizational•crisis.•Organizational•Dynamics,•33,•409-425.
Note the formatting for the hanging indent on the following reference, which is correctly styled with the formatting symbols showing:
Grant,•J.•M.•(2004,•November).•Preparing•for•battle:•Healthy•leadership•during
organizational•crisis.• Organizational•Dynamics,•33,•409-425.
Formatting for the hanging indent should not include hitting Enter at the end of the first line or hitting tab. Use the ruler at the top of the page. The following examples are incorrect because changing the reference in any way would result in formatting problems.
Grant,•J.•M.•(2004,•November).•Preparing•for•battle:•Healthy•leadership•during
--> organizational•crisis.•Organizational•Dynamics,•33,•409-425.
Grant,•J.•M.•(2004,•November).•Preparing•for•battle:•Healthy•leadership•during•¶
organizational•crisis. Organizational•Dynamics,•33,•409-425.
The APA also requires a specific order for references provided in the reference list. For help with the arrangement of sources for a reference list, see Ordering References in the Reference List.
.
The APA Publication Manual provides some helpful guidelines on how to arrange entries in a reference list (APA, pp. 219-222). The examples below may be used as a reference to guide you in alphabetizing and organizing your reference list.
The first two references are an example of letter-by-letter alphabetization:
Burns, J. M. (2003). Transforming leadership: A new pursuit of happiness.
Atlantic Monthly Press.
Burnside, C. N., Mockler, R. J., & Dologite, D. (2002). Online trading: The competitive
landscape. Review of Business, 23(3), 44-48.
The following references are examples of how to organize references by date:
Fullan, M. (2000). The return of large-scale reform. Journal of Educational Change,
1, 20-25.
Fullan, M. (2003a). The core principles: A means of deepening large-scale reform.
Retrieved April 18, 2006, from http://www.aspa.asn.au
Fullan, M. (2003b). Is it age or IT? First steps to understanding the net-generation.
In D. Oblinger & J. Oblinger (Eds.), Educating the Net generation (pp. 21-22).
Fullan, M. (in press). The role of leadership in the promotion of knowledge management
in schools. Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice, 8(3), 4-16.
Fullan, M. (n.d.) The benchmark measure of transformational leadership. Retrieved
August 24, 2005, from http://www.mindgarden.com/ products/mlq.htm Mayer,
D. E. (1999). The promise of educational psychology: Learning in the content
areas.
The following references are examples of how to organize references when the number of authors changes and when there are two authors with the last name.
Mayer, R., &
interaction foster deeper understanding of multimedia messages? Journal of
Educational Psychology, 93, 390-397.
Mayer, R., Heiser, J., & Lonn, S. (2001). Cognitive constraints on multimedia learning:
When presenting more material results in less understanding. Journal of
Educational Psychology, 93, 187-198.
Mayer, R., Mathias, A., & Wetzell, K. (1999). Fostering understanding of multimedia
messages through pre-training. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied,
8, 147-154.
Mayer, R., &
for dual processing systems in working memory. Journal of Educational
Psychology, 90, 312-320.
Mayer, W. (1991). Nine ways to reduce cognitive load in multimedia learning. Educational
Psychologist, 38, 43-52.
Mayer, W., & Wittrock, M. (1989). Problem-solving transfer. In D. Berliner & R. Calfee
(Eds.), Handbook of educational psychology (pp. 45-61).
Note that although the references listed here are based on actual references, details have been changed to meet the purposes of this teaching tool.